Air Pollution, Stratospheric Ozone Depletion, and
Acid Deposition
I. Air Pollution
- The Problem of air pollution is as old as civilization
itself!!
- Genesis (19:28): "Abraham beheld the smoke of the country go
up as the smoke of a furnace"
- Hippocrates (~400 B.C.): Noted the filth of the cities
- An English Diarist (~1684): "the air in London was so filled with smoke that one
could hardly see across the street"
- Air pollution is most problematic in urban areas..... has
increased markedly since the industrial revolution... and is
closely associated with cars, buses, and trucks
Natural Sourcesof
Air Pollution
- produce a greater quantity of pollutants than human-made sources
- Volcanoes: SOx, particulates
- Forest Fires: CO, CO2, NO2,
particulates
- Plants: HCs, pollens
- Decaying Plants: CH4, hydrogen sulfide
- Soil: dust and viruses
- Ocean: salt spray and particulates
Anthropogenic (Human-Caused) Air Pollution
Important
Anthropogenic Air Pollutants
*carbon monoxide (CO)
|
incomplete combustion of
fuels
|
*nitrogen oxides(NOx)
|
high temperature
combustion
|
*hydrocarbons HC
|
incomplete combustion of
fuels
|
*ozone (O3)
|
photochemical reactions
|
*PAN
|
photochemical reactions
|
*sulfur oxides (SOx)
|
combustion of
sulfur-containing fuels
|
particulates
|
dust, dirt, soot, salt,
metals, organics
|
carbon dioxide (CO2)
|
complete combustion
|
water vapor
|
combustion processes,
steam
|
methane (CH4)
|
organic processes
|
* (denotes above that the pollutant results
from combustion of fossil fuel - in transportation
& at power plants & factories)
- carbon monoxide - 70% from transportation
- hydrocarbons - 60% from transportation
- nitrogen oxides - 50% from transportation
Major "Primary"
Pollutants and their Sources
"Primary Pollutants" -- are emitted directly from identifiable sources . They pollute the air imediately
after being emitted.
"Secondary Pollutants" -- are not emitted directly into the air, but form
in the atmosphere when reactions take place among the primary pollutants.
A. Industrial Smog
"smog"
= smoke + fog
industrial smog -
contains: SOX, particulates, CO2 ....
sulfur dioxide:
- results from combustion of fossil fuels, colorless, but pungent
- impairs breathing - esp. breathing impaired individuals
- can be transformed to sulfuric acid and sulfate aerosols
- can be transported downwind to Canada
- 70% of Canada’s SO2 originates
in U.S.
B. Photochemical Smog
- Results from the interaction of sunlight and combustion
products of automobile exhaust
Photochemical Reactions
- NOx and Hydrocarbons (HC)
- assoc. with hazy sky and reduced sunlight in urban areas
(1) Nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 )
- reddish brown gas, damages and inflames respiratory systems
- an ozone precursor
(2) Hydrocarbons (HC)
- assoc. with the combustion of fossil fuels - automobiles and power
plants/factories
- an ozone precursor
(3) Ozone (O3)
- affects the human respiratory system - (12 million children are
at risk of developing health problems from ozone pollution)
- damages plants (loblolly pine), reduces crop yields, weakens rubber
and fabrics
- forms as a secondary pollutant
- NOx and HCs chemically
react in the presence of sunlight to form ozone
NO2 + UV light
> NO + O
O + O2 > O3
O3 + NO > NO2 + O2
build-up of ozone:
.....hydrocarbons are oxidized to peroxy radicals ... RO2....
RO2 + NO > NO2 +RO
II. Stratospheric Ozone
A. Consequences of a Decrease in
Stratospheric Ozone
- an increase in the number of cases of skin cancer
- an adverse impact on crops and animals due to an increase in
energetic ultraviolet radiation
- a cooling of the stratosphere that could affect stratospheric wind
patterns, possibly inducing some form of climate change
- for every 1% decrease in ozone, skin cancers increase by 5-10%
- Ozone forms naturally in the stratosphere: molecular oxygen combines with atomic oxygen
in the presence of another molecule
- Ozone is destroyed naturally by absorbing UV radiation
- Ozone is also destroyed by colliding with other gases, e.g., nitric
oxide and nitrogen dioxide
- Human activities are altering the amount of stratospheric ozone
Total Ozone
CFCs:
- Used as propellants in spray cans, refrigeration units, plastic
foams for insulation, packing, furniture, solvents, and styrofoam containers
- CFCs in aerosol cans have been banned in the US, Canada,
Scandinavia since 1978, however, aerosol CFC production has increased
overall in W. Europe as have worldwide nonaerosol CFCs
- Once CFC molecules enter the middle stratosphere, ultraviolet
radiation breaks them up, releasing chlorine in the process -- the
chlorine then rapidly destroys ozone (one chlorine atom removes ~ 100,000
ozone molecules
- The average lifetime of a CFC molecule is about 100 years
Stratospheric Ozone Depletion PPT
III. Acid Deposition
A. Introduction
- Air pollution emitted from industrial areas, especially products of
combustion, such as oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
and oxides of sulfur (SOx)
can be transported considerable distances downwind
- These materials (gases and aerosols) either settle to the ground in
dry form (dry deposition) or are removed from the air during
the formation of cloud particles and are then carried to the ground in
rain, snow, or fog (wet deposition).
B. Formation of Acids
- Emissions of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen may settle on
the local landscape, where they transform to acids as they interact with
water, especially during the formation of dew or frost
- Airborne particles may transform into tiny dilute drops of sulfuric
acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid
(HNO3) during a complex series of chemical reactions involving sunlight,
water vapor, and other gases.
- These acid aerosols may then fall slowly to the Earth, or they may
adhere to cloud droplets or fog droplets (acid fog)
- They may even act as nuclei on which the cloud droplets begin to
grow. When precipitation occurs in the cloud, it carries the acids to the
ground
C. Occurrence and Extent
of Acid Deposition
- Precipitation is naturally somewhat acidic. The carbon
dioxide in the air dissolves in precipitation, making it slightly acidic
with a pH between 5.0 and 5.6
- However, precipitation is becoming increasingly acidic in many
parts of the world, especially downwind of major industrial areas
- Airborne studies conducted during the middle 1980s revealed that
high concentrations of acid-rain producing pollutants can be carried great
distances from their sources
- In 1986, for example, scientists discovered high concentrations of
pollutants hundreds of miles off the east coast of North
America. It is suspected that they came form the industrial
East Coast cities.
- Acid rain knows no national boundaries!
- Regions noticeably affected by acid deposition are: eastern North
America, central Europe, and Scandinavia.
Sweden contends that
most of the emissions responsible for its acid precipitation come from
factories in England.
- In some cases, acid precipitation occurs naturally, e.g., northern Canada,
where natural fires in coal beds produce tremendous quantities of sulfur
dioxide
- In the northeastern U.S.,
where emissions of sulfur dioxide are primarily responsible for the acid
precipitation, typical pH values range between 4.0 and 4.5
- Acid precipitation is not however confined to the northeastern U.S., the acidity
of precipitation has increased rapidly during the past 20 years in the
southeastern U.S.
as well.
- Further west, rainfall acidity appears to be on the increase as
well. The main cause along the west coast for the increase in the acidity
of rain, appears to be the oxides of nitrogen released in automobile
exhaust
- Some scientists feel that if the U.S. turns more to coal-fired
plants, which are among the leading source of sulfur oxide emissions, the
problem will worsen
- To deal with the problem of acid deposition, the Clean Air Act of
1990 imposed a reduction in the United States emissions of
sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide.
- Canada has recently imposed new pollution control
standards and set a goal of reducing industrial air pollution by 50%
D. Effects of Acid
Deposition
- High concentrations of acid deposition can damage plants and water
resources (freshwater ecosystems seem to be particularly sensitive to
changes in acidity).
- Concern centers mainly on areas where interactions with the soil
are unable to neutralize the acidic inputs
- Studies indicate that thousands of lakes in the United States and Canada are
so acidified that entire fish populations may be adversely affected
- In an attempt to reduce acidity, lime is being poured into some
lakes
- About a third of the trees in Germany show signs of a blight
that is due in part to acid deposition
- Apparently, acidic particles raining down on the forest floor for
decades cause a chemical imbalance in the soil that, in turn, causes
serious deficiencies in certain elements necessary for the tree's growth
- Acid deposition is eroding the foundations of structures in many
cities throughout the world.
- In Rome,
the acidity of rainfall is beginning to disfigure priceless outdoor
fountain sculptures and statues
- The estimated annual cost of this damage to building surfaces,
monuments, and other structures is more than 2 billion dollars.