Reading Guide, Week 6: The Church on Marriage, and Courtly Love
Note: You have a short writing assignment concerning this material due Tuesday, 9/28/99. Click here.
A. Marriage and Marriage Reform in the 12th Century (Amt, 79-94)
One French historian (Georges Duby) has argued that the 12th century
witnessed a struggle between two models of marriage, one aristocratic and
the other ecclesiastical. The aristocratic model of marriage was the one
that we have seen at work in the world of Fredegund and in the world of
the eleventh-century Norman noblewomen. It was a model that stressed familial
duties and obligations; one, moreover, in which divorce (or repudiation)
was relatively easy. The ecclesiastical model of marriage was much
more rigorous and intractable. Although the church had for long argued
that marriage should be monogamous and indissoluble, it really only achieved
these ends in the 12th century, in the aftermath of the great papal reform
movement. The key figure in the articulation of the clerical model of marriage
was Gratian, a canon (or church) lawyer who composed the first great systematic
compilation of church law around 1140.
1. Part of the ecclesiastical model of marriage involved defining what
constituted marriage. Thinking back to our readings for last week, what
did aristocrats think were the necessary components of marriage?
2. In contrast to the aristocratic model, what did Gratian and other
church lawyers think? What is the primary component of marriage?
That is, what makes marriage?
3. Why might Gratian's model of marriage run into conflict with the
aristocratic model? Remember to think about who marriages were designed
to benefit: according to aristocratic families, what was the purpose of
marriage? Who was to benefit from it? How did Gratian's model contradict
this?
4. What does Gratian have to say about ways of ending marriage? Could
you end a marriage by rushing off to a monastery and becoming a monk?
5. What if one partner wishes to be celibate, while the other does
not? What does Gratian rule? What implications does this have for marital
relations? [Note: Gratian's ruling here led to the legal concept of the
"marital debt", which either spouse could legally require the other to
perform; note that this debt worked both ways - a husband could require
it of his wife, but so too could a wife require it of her husband].
6. What action initiates the process of marriage, according to Gratian?
What action completes it?
7. At what age does Gratian permit betrothals to occur? Why?
8. Some radical churchmen (think back to Jerome) argued that remarriage
was to be forbidden. What does Gratian say on the matter? Why?
9. What does Gratian have to say about adultery and its impact on marriage?
What should a man do if he finds that his wife has been fornicating or
committing adultery? What can he and what can he not do?
10. What, according to Gratian, was the "sole purpose" of marriage
for women? Consequently, how frequently does Gratian spouses should
conduct sexual relations?
11. Is there a double-standard regarding adultery?
12. Is divorce possible? When? What is the difference between divorcing
and "forsaking" one's spouse?
13. So which model of marriage was "better" for women - the aristocratic
or the ecclesiastical? Think about the benefits of each, and be sure to
consider what you mean by "better."
B. Liturgy for the Marriage Service (Sarum Rite), 11th-16th Centuries
(Amt, 83-89)
Keep in mind that this liturgy, or service, was an ideal, model
one. Most couples did not marry before a priest, and many did not
even exchange vows in church. Aristocratic weddings were held in the residences
of the bride or groom, and were almost entirely secular affairs. Thus,
even though this liturgy is of great interest, and even though it eventually
shaped many modern wedding services, it was not actually practiced very
widely.
1. What is meant by "asking the banns"? Is there any remnant of this
in modern wedding liturgies?
2. Notice that the liturgy takes careful account of the eligibility
of the couple to marry; that is, there can be none of the usual impediments
to marriage.
3. The language of the charge is still used in some modern churches
- what does the ceremony assume about the status of women vis à
vis their husbands? What are wives supposed to do? What are husbands supposed
to do?
C. The Book of Vices and Virtues (13th-14th century) (Amt, 89-90)
1. What, according to the author of this treatise, were the acceptable
occasions for sexual activity within marriage?
2. Look particularly at the third reason given in the treatise - what
does this passage assume about women's nature and, therefore, inclinations?
3. What sort of relationship between husband and wife is imagined by
this author?
D. Holy Maidenhood (13th century) (Amt, 90-94)
Keep in mind that the overall purpose of this treatise was to argue
against marriage and to argue in favor of virginity. In this sense, the
work is a true heir to the arguments and theories of St Jerome. Yet,
in typical medieval scholastic fashion, the author sets out arguments in
favor of marriage so that he can then go on to demolish them.
1. What associations are made between sin, body, and women? Can you
detect the old body-soul dichotomy here?
2. What are some of the reasons offered in favor of a women marrying?
3. What arguments are levied against marriage? What picture of married
life does our author paint for young women?
4. What does the author think about childbearing? Is it worth it? Why
or why not?
E. Life of Christina of Markyate, 12th century (Amt, 136-142)
Christina was a young woman who desired to live a celibate religious
life; her parents did not approve of this plan, and consequently tried
to marry her off. Our account of her life comes from a text written
to celebrate her holiness. It is, therefore, not a little biased, even
if it is nevertheless extremely significant in showing us a conflict between
the two models of marriage. Note: Burhtred is the man whom her parents
had chosen to be her husband.
1. What causes Christina to wish to take up the chaste religious life?
2. Her vow is extremely important, at least according to church law,
for vows had binding legal weight; how would she later use the vow she
made at the monastery of St Albans?
3. Christina's story shows us the aristocratic model of marriage in
action. How was the marriage between Christina and Burhtred contracted?
What did her parents and Burhtred think made for a betrothal (and a wedding)?
4. Why did Christina give in and agree to the betrothal? What must
have been going on?
5. Yet even after Christina was betrothed to Burhtred, was she fully
married? Why or why not? What remained missing before the marriage could
be complete? Look back to the Gratian passages if you are having
trouble here.
6. What sorts of tricks and pressures did her parents exert on Christina
in order to get her to accept Burhtred?
7. Note very carefully the speech given to Autti, Christina's father,
on pp. 139-140. What is his point of view on the matter of her marriage?
How does he think she should act? Why?
8. Note too that initially Abbot Fredebertus takes the side of Autti
and Beatrice. Why?
9. Why, then, does the abbot come around to Christina's side?
F. Marie de France, Le Fresne (12th century) (on reserve, in Marie
de France, The Lais, pp. 73-91)
Marie de France was a well-known poet and story-teller of the second
half of the twelfth century. Her lais were short, entertaining stories
that contained morals; in a way, they were similar to fairy tales.
Marie is significant because she is one of the first female secular writers.
In addition, although the stories have fantastic, magical qualities, they
are almost all set within the recognizable world of the twelfth-century
aristocracy. That is to say that Marie had a genius for using contemporary
life and mores as the backdrop on which to spin her tales. Given this fact,
we can use her stories to piece together snippets of information about
marriage practices, romantic love, and status hierarchies.
1. In the first lines of Le Fresne, Marie sets up a stark contrast
between the good wife and the bad wife. What qualities define each of them?
2. What role does honor seem to play in this world? How is shame connected
to honor? Do these traits motivate behavior for aristocratic men and women?
3. Marie makes an assumption about status, birth, and beauty. How are
they interconnected in her world?
4. What seems to be the status of the relationship between Fresne and
Gurun? Are they married? What do his friends and relatives think about
Fresne? What does this suggest about norms of marriage for the aristocracy?
5. Some critics argue that Marie (and other similar writers) contrast
love and marriage (that is, that love and marriage are separate concepts).
Is this the case in the story of le Fresne?
6. One of the points of the story is to suggest that because of her
noble birth and natural goodness, Fresne naturally filled the functions
of wife (as well as lover) even when she was merely a concubine. What are
some of those functions?
7. What role does the clergy perform in this story?
8. Why is it possible for Gurun's marriage to Codre to be annulled?
SHORT WRITING ASSIGNMENT: Please write
no more than a page in response to the following (due 9/28)
1. What was the impact of the ecclesiastical model of marriage on women?
Was it a positive or a negative step? Why?